The application of titanium in the aerospace industry primarily leverages its properties such as low density, high strength, high-temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance. Its use in aerospace aims to reduce launch weight, increase range, and save costs, making it a highly sought-after material in the field. Titanium can be employed in rockets, missiles, and aerospace applications as pressure vessels, fuel tanks, rocket engine casings, rocket nozzle liners, satellite shells, manned spacecraft cabins (skin and structural skeletons), landing gear, lunar modules, and propulsion systems.
The widely used material for the shell of the U.S. first-stage rocket engine is the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. This alloy is also employed in large cylindrical liquid rocket tanks, as well as spherical and elliptical engine casings for intercontinental ballistic missiles and the "Minuteman" missile.
On the other hand, due to the low content of interstitial elements, particularly oxygen, in the Ti-6Al-4V ELI and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI alloys, these alloys can be used at ultra-low temperatures. Consequently, they are utilized for liquid hydrogen containers in rockets and missiles, sealed compartments of the "Mercury" and "Gemini" spacecraft, as well as the primary structural components of the "Apollo" spacecraft that successfully landed on the moon.
In addition to industrial pure titanium, Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-5Al-2.5Sn, Ti-6Al-4V ELI, and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn ELI, the aerospace industry also employs Ti-7Al-4Mo, Ti-3Al-2.5V, Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al, Ti-15-3Cr-3Sn-3Al, and Ti/B-Al composite materials.
The Space Shuttle, the world's first reusable manned spacecraft, was developed starting in 1972 and achieved its first successful flight in 1981. The spacecraft consists of a small-winged aircraft, a 47-meter-long external fuel tank, and two solid-fuel rocket boosters totaling 500 tons.
The orbital spacecraft measures 37 meters in length and weighs approximately 68 tons, dimensions roughly equivalent to those of the jet transport aircraft DC-9. It is the largest manned spacecraft to date, with a cargo hold of 18 meters in length and 5 meters in diameter, capable of delivering 29.5 tons of cargo to Earth orbit. Like a rocket, it can be launched and, like a spacecraft, fly in orbits up to a maximum altitude of 1,000 kilometers. In the absence of atmospheric drag, it can glide and land like an aircraft. Essentially a space transport vessel, one of the key metrics for evaluating its utility is the effective payload capacity for transporting goods between Earth and Earth orbit. To maximize this effective payload, titanium alloys have become a critical material for aerospace vehicle components. The orbital spacecraft is designed for a service life of 100 flights, with each mission lasting 7 to 30 days in space. Since it is manned, it is engineered to withstand the harsh conditions of space (vacuum, extreme temperature variations in orbit, and heating during atmospheric re-entry) and be reusable.
1. High-pressure container
Titanium alloys are widely used because they can reduce the total weight of spacecraft orbiting vehicles. The primary application of titanium is in high-pressure containers for storing necessary fuels and gases. Lightweight titanium alloy containers were successfully developed for NASA's Gemini and Apollo spacecraft programs, utilizing Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The titanium pressure vessels on the Apollo spacecraft employed an unprecedented safety factor of 1.5 in practice, whereas previous designs used a safety factor of approximately 4. To further reduce the weight of high-pressure storage containers for orbital spacecraft, a method was adopted involving the application of Twaron fibers (an aromatic organic fiber produced by DuPont) onto the surfaces of thin-walled titanium containers. These containers are used for storing compressed gases. The "Ranger" satellite and its booster utilized a total of 14 titanium containers, resulting in a mass reduction of 27 kg.
Pressure vessels for storing liquid propellants. Approximately 50 pressure vessels were used on the Apollo spacecraft, with 85% made of titanium. The J-2S upper-stage engine, after switching to titanium alloy propellant tanks, saw a 35% weight reduction.
2. Engine casing
The casing of a solid-fuel rocket engine. The second-stage rocket engine of the Minuteman intercontinental missile employs Ti64 alloy, reducing weight by 30% to 40%.
The liquid-fueled fireproof engine casing. The pressure-bearing shell of the Apollo lunar module descent engine combustion chamber is made of Ti64 alloy.
3. Various structural components
Titanium alloys are also widely used in various structural components. The pressure cabin of the "Mercury" spacecraft was primarily made of titanium, accounting for 80% of the cabin's weight. The "Gemini" spacecraft utilized seven grades of titanium alloys, with 570 kg of titanium components, representing 84% of the structural weight. In the "Apollo" spacecraft, brackets, fixtures, and fasteners were all made of titanium, totaling 68 tons of titanium material.
4. Hydraulic piping
The fuel line piping of the space shuttle is made of seamless tubes using Ti-3Al-2.5V alloy. The adoption of this alloy reduces weight by over 40%. To minimize susceptibility to fatigue fractures and enhance the system's operational lifespan, the assembly of various pipes employs automatic hydroforming.
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